A Contrast of Western Round, Canon, Fugue with Chinese Guqin Diezou, Nong, Cao
Abstract
Within the polyphonic system of Western music, rounds, canons and fugues constitute three progressive core imitative compositional techniques. All of them take "thematic imitation" as their core, evolving from simple literal replication to sophisticated multi-voice thematic development. Although guqin music lacks the Western academic term "polyphony", it has formed three iconic compositional structures and performance paradigms—Diezou, Nong and Cao—through thousands of years of creative practice. These forms share high homology with Western rounds, canons and fugues in terms of musical logic, thematic treatment and hierarchical construction. This paper takes specific excerpts from classic guqin works including Xianweng Cao, Ode to Autumn, Plum Blossom Melody in Three Sections, Dragon Soaring Melody and Clouds Over the Xiao-Xiang Rivers as empirical evidence. It conducts comparative analyses between Round-Diezou, Canon-Nong and Fugue-Cao, distinguishes external discrepancies in terminology systems and expressive carriers, and demonstrates that despite differences in cultural contexts and instrumental forms, classical Chinese and Western music cultivated imitative musical thinking with identical core connotations.
Keywords: polyphony; round; canon; fugue; guqin; Diezou; Nong; Cao
1. Introduction
The core essence of polyphonic music lies in multiple melodies forming conversational auditory layers through thematic imitation. Western music has established a standardized three-tier system of imitative techniques: rounds represent pure delayed imitation without any alterations; canons refer to relay imitation that permits transposition and minor variations; fugues stand for large-scale structured imitation featuring full-length thematic penetration and multi-dimensional transformation, with each tier growing progressively more complex.
By contrast, guqin music does not adopt compositional forms of multi-voice chorus or ensemble. Centered on single-string melody, it creates layered auditory effects via three compositional approaches: literal repetition of melodies within a single register, transpositional repetition across different registers, and cyclic thematic transformation that runs through an entire piece. Ancient qin scholars summarized these three paradigms with exclusive terms Diezou, Nong and Cao, which form a complete logical correspondence with Western rounds, canons and fugues.
Existing music research often segregates Chinese and Western musical systems, holding the inherent belief that polyphony is a musical form exclusive to Western music. Based on the underlying musical logic of melodic imitation, this paper sets aside superficial disparities in instruments, notation and culture, and completes a comparative demonstration of analogous musical thinking supported by excerpts from guqin scores.
2. Pure Delayed Literal Imitation: Western Round and Guqin Diezou
2.1 Core Definition of the Western Round
The round is the most fundamental form of polyphony with an extremely simple rule: a piece contains only one complete melody, performed by different voice parts entering sequentially with staggered timings. All voices maintain identical melody, rhythm and pitch without adaptation, transposition or transformation, generating multi-layered auditory effects solely through time lag. The choral version of Two Tigers serves as a typical example. Its core features: literal replication, timing dislocation only, no melodic modifications.
2.2 Corresponding Guqin Concept: Diezou (Pure Overlap)
Also known as Rezuo (repeated performance), Diezou means complete phrases or musical motifs are repeated sequentially without any melodic revisions. Some scores transpose an entire melody to another register while retaining all original notes and rhythms, with no embellishments, deletions or retrograde adaptations. As the most primitive imitative technique of the guqin, it fully aligns with the compositional logic of rounds.
2.3 Comparative Demonstration with Guqin Excerpts
1. Core Motif Section of Xianweng Cao
The six-note core motif repeats literally in the opening, middle and closing segments of the entire piece, with unified fingering, rhythm and pitch, separated merely by temporal intervals. Just as multiple vocal parts sing staggered rounds, the guqin creates melodic dialogue by repeatedly playing the identical motif without any melodic transformations.
2. Low-Register Full Passage Overlap in Ode to Autumn
After performing twenty lines of low-register melody in the first half, the piece directly repeats the entire passage in the high register with fully replicated notes, clauses and rhythms, only pitched higher without ornamental embellishments. Equivalent to a round transposed to a new register with delayed entry, this is standard pure Diezou.
2.4 Summary of Homology
Rounds form repetitive layers through staggered vocal singing, while guqin Diezou achieves identical auditory effects via sequential repetition and register shifting on a single instrument. The two share entirely consistent underlying creative logic, differing only in expressive carriers—chorus versus solo guqin—as divergent manifestations of one musical thought in Eastern and Western civilizations.
3. Transposable Relay Imitation with Minor Variations: Western Canon and Guqin Nong
3.1 Core Definition of the Western Canon
Built upon the round, the canon retains relay imitation of the core theme while expanding creative freedom: imitative voices may shift pitches upward or downward as a whole, or undergo slight temporal stretching and retrograde fine-tuning, with the fundamental melodic framework preserved. Pachelbel's Canon and Gigue in D Major, featuring multiple violins playing the same theme across registers in relay, is a classic representative. Its core features: unified core theme, cross-register imitation, allowance for subtle local variations.
3.2 Corresponding Guqin Concept: Nong (Three-Nong, Transpositional Nong)
As an exclusive structural term embedded in guqin titles, Nong is defined as the sequential performance of one core theme across the low, middle and high qin registers. The first two renditions feature nearly identical melodies, while the third incorporates alternations between harmonics and stopped tones, rhythmic embellishments and dynamic undulations, retaining thematic identity while enriching details. This aligns closely with the rules of transpositional imitation and minor variation in canons.
3.3 Comparative Demonstration with Guqin Excerpts
1. Three Harmonic Themes of Plum Blossom Melody in Three Sections (The Most Representative Comparative Model)
- First Nong & Second Nong: The core plum blossom harmonic theme is performed in the lower and middle registers respectively, with fully unified melodic notes and rhythms and no variation, corresponding to basic parallel canons.
- Third Nong: Transposed to the high upper register, the original melodic skeleton is supplemented by contrasts between long and short notes and alternations of harmonics and stopped tones, retaining thematic recognition while adding subtle variations, equivalent to ornamental augmented canons.
The three themes progress relay-like from low to high, fully replicating the compositional logic of canons: cross-register relay of unified themes with minor local variations.
2. Gradational Transpositional Nong Passages in Dragon Soaring Melody
The core dragon cry motif rises sequentially from the 10th hui on the 7th string to the 9th hui, 6/7 division, 7th hui, 2/6 division, 6/5 division, 5th hui and 4/4 division. Melodic skeletons remain unchanged with pitch climbing continuously, with fingering dynamics adjusted slightly alongside register shifts, representing continuous transpositional Nong analogous to multi-layer progressive canons.
3.4 Summary of Homology
Canons realize thematic relay across registers through multiple instruments, while guqin Nong achieves the same by alternating hui positions and registers on a single qin. Both center on a unified theme and permit pitch transposition and minor detail adaptation, with no essential divergence in creative thinking.
4. Full-Length Thematic Penetration and Multi-Dimensional Transformation: Western Fugue and Guqin Cao
4.1 Core Definition of the Western Fugue
The fugue represents the mature, complete ultimate form of polyphonic music with rigorous fixed structures: a single core theme is presented first; a second voice enters with a transposed "answer"; subsequent voices layer in sequence. Developmental segments may reverse, split, extend or compress the theme, which penetrates every passage of the whole piece and forms sustained dialogue with countersubjects. Fugal movements from Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier serve as representative works. Its core features: one unified core theme, full-length penetration, multi-form transformation, complete large-scale formal structure.
4.2 Corresponding Guqin Concept: Cao
The suffix "Cao" in guqin titles designates lengthy, structurally complete large-scale qin suites. Its defining creative trait lies in a single core imagery theme running through the entire piece, recurring in openings, developments, climaxes and codas. The theme is split, embellished and transformed by emotional tone across passages, layered with sustained low open strings and auxiliary harmonics to form heterophonic layers, matching the logic of large-scale thematic penetration in fugues.
4.3 Comparative Demonstration with Guqin Excerpts
1. Clouds Over the Xiao-Xiang Rivers (Full-Length Penetration of Water-Cloud Motifs)
The five-note surging water-cloud motif acts as the exclusive core theme throughout the piece, unfolding gently in low registers at the opening; split and rhythmically stretched in developmental segments; reversed and reinforced by high harmonics at the climax; simplified to conclude the coda. Diverse thematic transformations span all passages, with sustained low open strings underpinning the main melody to create natural heterophonic counterpoint, equivalent to fugal thematic exposition and stretto sections.
2. Wild Goose Cry Theme with Multi-Layered Transformations in Wild Geese Descend on Sandbank
The wild goose cry theme distributes across all low, middle and high registers, played in full form or fragmented for echoing. Simplified melodies emerge in soothing segments, while rapid fingering ornaments overlay climactic passages. The whole piece advances layer by layer around one single theme, embodying the complete cyclic developmental logic of fugues.
3. Narrative Thematic Penetration in Guangling Melody
As an epic Cao suite, the core motif of assassinating the Han lord runs through its forty-five movements. Themes transform in tempo, dynamics and timbre across passages, with mutual echoing dialogue between sections corresponding to alternating answering voices in fugues.
4.4 Summary of Homology
Fugues complete full-length thematic transformation and expansion via multiple independent voices, while guqin Cao simulates multi-voice dialogue through sequential repetition and register alternation of single melodies supported by heterophonic harmonics and open bass strings. Both command one single core theme to govern the entire composition and possess complex, fully realized large-scale musical structures.
5. Analysis of Superficial Divergences Between Chinese and Western Imitative Musical Thinking
The preceding arguments verify logical homology, yet superficial distinctions emerge from instruments, culture and aesthetics:
1. Divergent Voice Carriers
Western rounds, canons and fugues adopt synchronous sounding multi-voices, with multiple melodies progressing simultaneously. Solo guqin music features linear sequential sound production, simulating multi-voice dialogue through successive repetition and register alternation without synchronous dual melodies.
2. Distinct Aesthetic Cores
Western polyphony pursues rational, neat and strict counterpoint with clear voice boundaries. Guqin Diezou, Nong and Cao prioritize artistic conception with free, casual transformations unbound by standardized rules, emphasizing lingering charm and blank space.
3. Differentiated Origins of Terminology Systems
Western terminology derives from chorus and orchestral ensemble composition, serving church and court instrumental music. Guqin terms Diezou, Nong and Cao originate from literati solo guqin performance, named around landscapes and lyrical imagery with oriental literary connotations.
6. Conclusion
Examining Chinese and Western classical music through the underlying logic of melodic imitation reveals precise correspondences between the three tiers of Western polyphonic techniques and three classic guqin compositional types: the Round, representing pure delayed literal imitation, corresponds to guqin Diezou; the Canon, representing transposable relay imitation with minor variations, corresponds to guqin Nong; the Fugue, representing full-length thematic penetration and multi-dimensional transformation, corresponds to guqin Cao.
Despite vastly different naming conventions, performance carriers and auditory appearances, they share entirely homologous creative musical thinking, proving melodic repetition and thematic imitation constitute universal underlying logic of human musical composition. This research breaks the inherent perception that "polyphony belongs exclusively to Western music". Contrasting guqin works with Western polyphony enables a more inclusive, holistic cross-cultural perspective for music research.
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